Habeas-Corpus Essay Free Essays

Habeas-corpus is a Latin expression which truly implies â€Å"you may have the body†. Under the law of England, because of long utilization, the term came to imply a right writ; a cure with which an individual unlawfully confined looked to be set at freedom. It is referenced as ahead of schedule as the fourteenth century in England and was formalized in the Habeas-corpus Act of 1679. We will compose a custom paper test on Habeas-Corpus Essay or on the other hand any comparative point just for you Request Now The benefit of the utilization of this writ was viewed as an establishment of human opportunity and the British resident demanded this benefit any place he went whether for business or colonization. This is the manner by which it found a spot in the Constitution of the United States when the British settlements in America won their autonomy and set up another State under that Constitution. In India, under the Constitution, the ability to give a writ of habeas-corpus is vested uniquely in the Supreme Court and the High Courts. The writ is a heading of the Court to an individual who is keeping another, ordering him to get the body of the individual his care at a predefined time to a predetermined spot for a predetermined reason. A writ of habeas-corpus has just one reason: To set at freedom an individual who is restricted without lawful avocation: to make sure about discharge from repression of an individual unlawfully confined. The writ doesn't rebuff the transgressor. In the event that the detainment is demonstrated unlawful, the individual who makes sure about freedom through the writ may continue against the miscreant in any suitable way. The writ is given against specialists of the State as well as to private people or associations if essential. Instructions to refer to Habeas-Corpus Essay, Essay models

Battle of Narva - Great Northern War Battle of Narva

Skirmish of Narva - Great Northern War Battle of Narva Struggle Date: The Battle of Narva was battled November 30, 1700, during the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Armed forces Commanders: Sweden Lord Charles XII8,500 men Russia Duke Charles Eugã ¨ne de Croy30,000-37,000 men Skirmish of Narva Background: In 1700, Sweden was the prevailing force in the Baltic. Triumphs during the Thirty Years War and ensuing clashes had broadened the country to incorporate domains running from northern Germany to Karelia and Finland. Anxious to battle Swedens power, its neighbors of Russia, Denmark-Norway, Saxony, and Poland-Lithuania schemed to assault in the late 1690s. Opening threats in April 1700, the partners proposed to strike Sweden from a few headings on the double. Moving to meet the danger, 18-year old King Charles XII of Sweden chose for manage Denmark first. Driving a well-prepared and profoundly prepared armed force, Charles propelled an intense attack of Zealand and started walking on Copenhagen. This battle constrained the Danes out of the war and they marked the Treaty of Travendal in August. Closing business in Denmark, Charles left with around 8,000 men for Livonia in October with the aim of driving an attacking Polish-Saxon armed force from the region. Landing, he rather chose to move east to help the city of Narva which was undermined by Tsar Peter the Greats Russian armed force. The Battle of Narva: Showing up at Narva toward the beginning of November, Russian powers started laying attack to the Swedish battalion. In spite of the fact that having a center of all around bored infantry, the Russian armed force had not yet been completely modernized by the tsar. Numbering somewhere in the range of 30,000 and 37,000 men, the Russian power was showed from south of the city in a bended line rushing toward the northwest, with their left flank secured on the Narva River. In spite of the fact that mindful of Charles approach, Peter withdrew the military on November 28 leaving Duke Charles Eugã ¨ne de Croy in order. Squeezing east through awful climate, the Swedes showed up outside the city on November 29. Shaping for the fight to come on Hermansberg slope more than a mile from the city, Charles and his central field authority, General Carl Gustav Rehnskiã ¶ld, arranged to attack the Russian lines the following day. Inverse, Croy, who had been made aware of the Swedish methodology and moderately little size of Charles power, excused that the foe would assault. On the morning of November 30, a snowstorm slipped over the war zone. In spite of the foul climate, the Swedes despite everything arranged for the fight to come, while Croy rather welcomed most of his senior officials to supper. Around early afternoon, the breeze moved toward the south, blowing the snow straightforwardly into the Russians eyes. Detecting the bit of leeway, Charles and Rehnskiã ¶ld started progressing against the Russian community. Utilizing the climate as spread, the Swedes had the option to way to deal with inside fifty yards of the Russian lines without being spotted. Flooding forward in two segments, they broke the soldiers of General Adam Weyde and Prince Ivan Trubetskoy and broke Croys line in three. Squeezing home the ambush, the Swedes constrained the acquiescence of the Russian place and caught Croy. On the Russian left, Croys rangers mounted a vivacious barrier however was driven back. In this piece of the field, the retreat of Russian powers prompted the breakdown of a boat connect over the Narva River which caught the majority of the military on the west bank. Having picked up the high ground, the Swedes vanquished the leftovers of Croys armed force in detail through the remainder of the day. Plundering the Russian camps, Swedish order faltered yet the officials had the option to keep up control of the military. Before sun-up, the battling had finished with the decimation of the Russian armed force. Fallout of Narva: A staggering triumph against overpowering chances, the Battle of Narva was one of Swedens most noteworthy military triumphs. In the battling, Charles lost 667 slaughtered and around 1,200 injured. Russian misfortunes were roughly 10,000 executed and 20,000 caught. Incapable to think about such an enormous number of detainees, Charles had the enrolled Russian fighters incapacitated and sent east while just the officials were kept as detainees of war. Notwithstanding the caught arms, the Swedes caught almost all of Croys ordnance, supplies, and hardware. Having successfully dispensed with the Russians as a danger, Charles questionably chose for transform south into Poland-Lithuania instead of assault into Russia. Despite the fact that he won a few remarkable triumphs, the youthful ruler botched a key chance to remove Russia from the war. This disappointment would come to frequent him as Peter revamped his military along present day lines and in the long run squashed Charles at Poltava in 1709.

Mozart Essay examples -- essays research papers

MOZART      Mozart is maybe the best melodic virtuoso who at any point lived. Mozart 's complete name is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The vast majority called him Mozart or Wolfgang. Mozart was conceived in Salzburg, Austria, January 27, 1756.      Mozart is the best melodic youngster wonder who at any point lived. He started creating minuets at 5 years old and ensembles at age 9. His dad took him on a progression of show visits along with his sister, Maria Anna; brought into the world four and one-half years prior Mozart. She as well, was a kid wonder. Both played the console, yet Mozart turned into a violin virtuoso, also.      In 1762 he and his sister, "Nannerl," as she was nicknamed, performed before the Balloter of Bavaria in Munich, and at the Imperial Court in Vienna. In 1763 the Morzart's visited Mannheim. This is the place Mozart, took in about the ensemble and orchestras formed there.      In London Mozart met the child of J. S. Bach. He played before recognized crowds, and formed a sacrosanct chorale. In 1770, he started to ace the two kinds of Italian show: drama buffa (comic show) and drama seria (genuine show). In 1777, Mozart's family visited Paris. His mom became sick and passed on during their visit. In 1782, Mozart wedded Constanze Weber against his dad's desires. In 1783, Mozart and Constanze visited Salzburg, where he got Michael Haydn out of a troublesome spo...

Nursery School Teachers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nursery School Teachers - Essay Example The two perceptions were situated in a nursery in East London; the setting gives a protected learning condition to more than 200 youngsters. The perception was done on youngsters matured from 4 years upwards, three young men, three young ladies from various foundations and culture. The exercises depended on drawing, composing, painting and discovering bugs in the school garden. One action was done inside the premises and the other action was done both outside and inside. Every one of these two exercises needed to connect developing proficiency. As per Sulzby, (1989) that rising proficiency is the perusing and composing practices.. As indicated by Sulzby and Teale (1996, p.728) that, New proficiency is worried about the most punctual periods of education advancement, the period among birth and when youngsters peruse and compose ordinarily. The term new proficiency flags a conviction that, in a proficient society, little youngsters even 1 and multi year-olds is getting educated. The pe rceptions The gathering class had been taking a shot at a point about smaller than usual monsters which had included scanning for natural life in the school garden and looking at the creatures intently so as to enable the understudies to recognize and name them. The reason for the meeting was to build up the children’s perception, social and detailing abilities. ... When the kids put the woodlice, snails and creepy crawlies in their bug boxes, the youngsters they took out their magnifying lens and afterward began to set them against their eyes while they glanced through it to see their bugs. A few youngsters checked the quantity of legs on the bugs, the eyes, shading, size and state of the creepy crawlies. While the kids were sitting outside, they began discussing how a few creepy crawlies live in the messy and how cool the bugs must feel. The youngsters reacted to this with a wry and for what reason don't they live in a house. After the meeting in the nursery with the magnifying lens and the bug boxes, the youngsters were urged to expound on their examinations. Distinguishing and building up the various aptitudes She actualized systems for both the smaller than normal mammoth and painting action to empower free composition from the students, this was finished by esteeming children’s developing composition. This procedure esteeming childr en’s work and hypothesis is known as a Humanistic Approach. As per Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, John Holt, Malcolm Knowles and Kolb all put stock in this way to deal with learning. As indicated by Bill Huitt, it is the methodology upon the advancement of the child’s self idea; in the event that kids feel great inside themselves, at that point this is a positive beginning for movement to self turn of events, which Maslow, perceived this as the â€Å"self actualisation†. She disclosed to the youngsters previously permitting them to begin the two exercises, what the two of them comprised of and afterward read out the errand guidelines. This was perused out unmistakably, upgrade and from that it permitted youngsters to have the option to tail it simpler. Freud’s, psychoanalytical hypothesis expresses that enthusiastic incitement is the significant perspective that

How to Buy Term Paper Online

How to Buy Term Paper OnlineAre you wondering what is the best way to buy term paper online? With the information and internet now becoming such a major part of our lives, it is important that we have the ability to use it in order to get the information that we need to. So, how can you be sure that the online retailer is legitimate?First, you need to make sure that you can buy from a company that is honest and reputable. Some individuals might have the tendency to buy things that they do not need for themselves and will then go on to put them back on the internet for others to purchase. It is therefore necessary that you look for a company that will allow you to save money on your purchases. You should also be aware that there are other companies that are simply out to make money by selling you goods that are useless.Once you have found an online retailer that will be willing to work with you, you should make sure that you find the right kind of papers that you will need. There are two main categories that you should consider when buying term paper online: the type of paper that you want and the available options. Be sure that you consider all the different types of paper, including the standard paper or the higher quality paper that is often used for various classifications of school papers.Ensure that you do not purchase the higher grade paper that is normally made to be used by students. Usually, students use the lower grade paper for research papers, while the higher grade paper is for publishing. If you want to buy a printing paper, it is preferable that you choose a professional paper that is meant for permanent documents and will last for a long time.It is also important that you take time to check the paper's quality before you buy it. As with any other paper, there are many instances when an individual finds that the paper has some flaws. It is thus important that you donot hesitate to ask the seller whether or not he has any problems with the paper. With that said, if you want to buy term paper online, you should also be able to receive the paper within the specified time period.Most online retailers that sell papers will also offer you great offers for discounted rates. You might be wondering why they are doing this, but you would be surprised at the results. One of the best ways to purchase paper is by joining an e-mail list or a newsletter. This will allow you to receive instant alerts when you purchase a certain paper.Online retailers should also provide you with proof of their delivery. You should be able to see that the paper has been received by the address that was given to you, rather than having to wait for delivery. This means that you will be assured that the paper is in your hands and that it has not been lost.In the end, it is up to you whether you will go with an online paper retailer or not. Just make sure that you are getting the right type of paper, and use that as your guide in choosing one.

School Segregation in the United States - Free Essay Example

Issue: Despite the racial diversity of the general student populace, New Jersey public schools are among the most segregated in the nation, creating unhealthy learning environments for both minority and Caucasian students. Necessary Background: New Jersey historically has very strong desegregation laws; being one of the first states in the nation in to enact anti-segregation laws in 1881. It also is also the only state with a constitutional provision explicitly forbidden segregation. However, in recent decades, schools are becoming increasingly segregated with suburban schools being primarily Caucasian and urban schools often being predominantly of color. These residential patterns cause and make more widespread the issue of school segregation due to the structure of New Jersey schools. Due to the large number (585) of school districts and the lacking amount of regional districts, school diversity is representative of the diversity or lack thereof in the towns themselves. Evidence of Problem Existing: Since 1989, the percentage of students attending apartheid schools, schools with a less than 1% Caucasian population, has near doubled to 8.3%. The proportion of students attending schools with a less than 10% Caucasian population has also near doubled to 20.1%. Despite increasing ethnic diversity, especially due to the influx of Hispanic students in New Jersey, the proportion of Caucasian students in a typical African American or Hispanic students school has only decreased in the last few decades, suggesting that New Jersey schools very much so still segregate minorities. As of 2015, on average Caucasian students attended schools which were 67% white. Impact: School segregation often exacerbates racial inequality. Qualified teachers are far less likely to remain in segregated school districts. School integration is proven to help students of color graduate and advance to college. Dropout rates are much higher for districts with high poverty and a high minority population. For Caucasian students, students in diverse schools feel better joining the diverse, multiracial workforce. A racially integrated school district gives opportunities for students to interact with children of different backgrounds, improves critical thinking skills through the understanding of various perspectives, and reduces the tendencies in students to make stereotypes. The segregation of schools in new Jersey deprives both many children of color a proper education and Caucasian students the training of many necessary life skills. Possible Solutions: As mentioned previously, the predominant causes are the structure of New Jersey schools and concentration of race in housing regions. Therefore, there are two primary possible solutions. The first lies in changing the structure of New Jersey schools in order to facilitate racial diversity. This can be achieved through properly managed school choice programs with programs such as parent outreach, preference for students in segregated areas, and free transportation. The second solution involves making the communities themselves more diverse. Funding could be put towards strengthening housing markets in areas in danger of resegregation, stabilizing diversity in such communities and their schools. Affordable housing should also be strategically placed in more diverse areas rather than places with historically successful and segregated school districts. Sources: https://www.nj.com/education/2017/11/apartheid_in_nj_schools_on_the_rise_study_says.html https://www.njspotlight.com/stories/17/10/17/tackling-the-toughest-questions-facing-nj-s-public-education-system/ https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED577712 https://ielp.rutgers.edu/docs/Norflet_NJ_Final_101013_POST.pdf

Past, Present and Future for Education System - 2221 Words

Past, present and future for education system Sponsored by Published on undefined NaN undefined NaN NaN:NaN From: David H Rhodes, Keeble Park North, Bishopthorpe, York. THE school examination results have been announced and no doubt many students are rejoicing in what they have attained through very hard work. Congratulations to them. This does, however, bring an air of confusion as to the genuine merit and value of the grades attained. Correct me if I am wrong, but I believe that 50 years ago only a percentage of examinees were passed in each grade, A, B, etc. If so, it would have had the benefit of stricter marking and no added points for crude expressions. Universities would have had a better selection process as there would have been†¦show more content†¦Can the Prime Minister now admit to the error in maginalising our brightest students and increase the investment in their future? We would then improve our commercial, industrial, scientific and professional status in the world and perhaps improve the calibre of our future politicians and other personnel in governing authorities. Sad indictment of councils culture policy From: Alice Sheepshanks, Arthington, near Leeds. AS the air reverberates with the sound of rock from the Leeds Festival, at Bramham, I sorely lament the lack of some culture and hope most sincerely that next year it will be possible for Leeds City Council to support the Leeds Shakespeare Festival again. It is so important to cater for all tastes, and not just to bow to the lowest common denominator. I believe wholeheartedly that Shakespeare can be appreciated by all ages and classes, particularly if performed by this most skilful and dedicated troupe, the British Shakespeare Company. I have taken my two children (now aged 12 and 14) to the performances at Kirkstall Abbey since they were quite small. They adored the spectacle, the language, the plot – it was a marvellous opportunity for them. I feel desperately sad that this year they can wander about at Bramham and listen to the thundering sound of Metallica and Tenacious D (which they love) but The Tempest or A Midsummer Nights Dream are out of the question. What a sad indictment on Leeds City Council.Show MoreRelatedThe Phases Of American Education1528 Words   |  7 PagesThe Phases of American Education Can you imagine a world without education? If education did not exist there would be no iPhones, computers, laptops, or cars. Education has had its ups and downs. The learning system in the past was very basicÍ ¾ students got lessons directly from the teacher and more information from the book. Back then, parents taught their children how to read and write from the bible and hornbooks. People usually learned how to read from picture books. 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The Intergenerational Observation Scale - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 18 Words: 5254 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Sociology Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Abstract Innovative intergenerational programs continue to grow in number and scope. The development of standardized evaluation instruments, however, lags behind, leaving many researchers and practitioners without tools to effectively assess their programs. Evaluation data often focus on outcomes without attention to the nature of the interactions between generations. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Intergenerational Observation Scale" essay for you Create order Understanding the process of intergenerational contact is central to understanding its outcomes. We developed the Intergenerational Observation Scale to assess the social interactions and affect of young and old participants during intergenerational activities. Our 3-step observer training process demonstrated good scale reliability. We present the process of developing the scale, achieving observer reliability, and next steps to continue exploring the scales utility across intergenerational populations and settings. KEY WORDS: evaluation, instrument development, intergenerational, programming Development of a standardized tool for intergenerational programming: The Intergenerational Observation Scale Providing opportunities for meaningful engagement to persons with dementia challenges family and professional caregivers alike. While some practitioners and researchers seek innovative means to support client well-being (e.g., Allen-Burge, Burgio, Bourgeois, Sims, Nunnikhoven, 2001; Orsulic-Jeras, Judge, Camp, 2000), many dementia care programs are characterized by extreme levels of inactivity (Ice, 2002), which may result from infantilization (Salari Rich, 2001) and can lead to agitation and depression and detract from well-being (Teri et al., 2003; Voelkl, 1986). Kitwood and Bredin (1992) emphasized caregivers responsibility for supporting the personhood of individuals with diminished capacity to do so for themselves. Personhood, or the dignity and respect owed to each individual, encompasses an individuals experiences, preferences and values. For many people, their social history involves significant time spent interacting with and c aring for children. Recently, care professionals have turned to intergenerational programming (IGP) as one therapeutic method to support personhood and well-being of persons with dementia (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott Bruno, 2001). Though contact between young and old generations remains an integral part of most families (Eggebeen Davey, 1998), non-familial IGP remains a relatively new treatment milieu in elder care. IGP as a whole varies widely, depending on the populations involved, program objectives, and available resources. Interventions targeting children at risk for drug use (Taylor, LoSciuto, Fox, Hilbert, Sonkowsky, 1999), older adults needing employment (Larkin Newman, 2001), and foster care families needing community support (Eheart Hopping, 2001) have utilized intergenerational strategies to achieve program goals. Programs have employed IGP to promote positive affect and engagement of older adults (Xaverius Matthews, 2003), improved attitudes about aging among children (Middlecamp Gross, 2002), and greater sense of community among staff (Jarrott, Morris, Kemp, Stremmel, 2004). Despite the significant cognitive impairment of many elder care clients, practitioners have found elders experiences interacting with and caring for children so ingrained that they remain able to interact appropriately and positively with children until late in the progress of a dementing illness (Camp et al., 1997). The means of assessing IGP vary as much as the programs themselves. Researchers have utilized interviews (Jarrott Bruno, 2007), observational scales (Marx, Pannell, Papura-Gill, Cohen-Mansfield, 2004; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), attitudinal surveys (Jantz, Seefeldt, Galper, Serlock, 1977; Kocarnik Ponzetti, 1986), drawings (Lichtenstein, et al., 2001), and cognitive assessments (Newman, Karip, Faux, 1995) to evaluate the impact of IGP on one or more groups of participants. While the range of scales utilized is not inherently problema tic, the current state of intergenerational research tools requires significant improvement for several reasons. First, scales are often created for a single study without any report of psychometric properties (Kuehne, 2004). Consequently, researchers reinvent the wheel rather than use valid, reliable scales. Second, most scales assess the experiences of a single generation (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Underwood Dorfman, 2006) although IGP should, by definition (Newman Smith, 1999), provide mutual benefit for young and old participants. Third, the developmental and disease characteristics of a large portion of IGP participants, pre-school age children and frail elders (e.g., Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Middlecamp Gross, 2002; Salari, 2002), limit the opportunity for valid self-report measures. Consequently, researchers often rely on proxy report and direct observation to tap participants experiences with IGP. A critical limitation of much IGP research lies in the black box that conceals the process of bringing young and old together. That is, assessments targeting the impact of IGP often neglect what actually transpired during the IGP. Useful process data will vary from project to project; it might detail the level of activity, the type of interpersonal interactions, the physical environment, facilitators behaviors, or the activitys age appropriateness. For example, Xaverius and Matthews (2003) assessed the impact of IGP involving fourth graders and senior center participants who met for six intergenerational activities. The authors described the theme and setting of activities where elderly participants engagement was coded. Data were not gathered regarding the nature of the activities or what happened when participants were engaged in the intergenerational activity (i.e., if they engaged with the activity materials, with an age peer, or with an intergenerational partner). In contrast, Taylor and colleagues (1999) reported on a senior mentoring pro gram targeting attitudes towards aging, drug use, and civic engagement of participating at-risk youth. The treatment group as a whole demonstrated improved attitudes towards school, civic engagement, aging, and resisting drug use compared to a control group. The authors also tapped into important process data by rating seniors intensity of involvement as a mentor. The researchers found a greater degree of attitudinal improvement among children whose senior mentors were more intensely involved with their student partners. Such studies exemplify the importance of capturing process as well as outcome data. The variety of populations and settings that avail themselves of IGP supports the study of multiple paths leading to positive outcomes. Most would agree that a one-size-fits-all model of IGP is impossible and inappropriate; however, identification of practices and processes that optimize outcomes improves the overall quality of IGP and enhances understanding of how IGP uniquel y meets individuals needs across the lifecourse. In turn, greater understanding of the processes by which positive IGP outcomes are achieved informs development of theory pertaining to intergenerational relationships. For example, while the contact theory (Allport, 1954) provides necessary conditions for achieving positive intergroup contact, Allport did not describe the processes by which these outcomes would be achieved (Pettigrew, 1998). The limitations of IGP and related research stem from the relative infancy of IGP research. Researchers have been studying IGP for only the last 30 years (e.g., Jantz, et al., 1977), yet they are trying to raise the field to match those of child and adult development. Practitioners are anxious to know how IGP affects the physical, cognitive, and mental health of participants, yet the more basic question about whether and how children and elders interact with each other during proscribed IGP remains largely unanswered. Before we can reliabl y draw conclusions about the effects of IGP on children and elderly participants, we must determine the nature of their time spent together. Kuehnes (2003) state of our art report on intergenerational research implored researchers to tap the experiences of young and old participants and to develop and disseminate standardized measures relevant to IGP. By addressing these points, researchers can better inform practitioners efforts and build a cohesive body of research. The scale described in the current paper addresses each of these recommendations. We sought to address the challenge of measuring the experiences of young and old IGP participants, focusing on frail elders and pre-school age children because they constitute a large portion of participants involved in IGP (Goyer Zuses, 1998). We conducted a three-phase study to develop an observational scale tapping the social behavior and affect of both young and old IGP participants. We turned to the child development literatu re, with its long history of observational research, for inspiration. Partens (1933) categories of childrens play behaviors appealed to us; they encompassed categories reflecting a continuum of social behaviors ranging from non-engagement to cooperative engagement. Rubin (2001) developed the Play Observation Scale, drawing on Partens work and childrens cognitive development research. The broad social behaviors of unoccupied, watching, solitary, parallel, and cooperative captured by the Play Observation Scale reflect behaviors of interest to practitioners working to support meaningful engagement among elders and children. For example, a code for unoccupied behavior is salient given the high rates of inactivity found at elder care programs (Ice, 2002) and the goal of utilizing intergenerational strategies to promote positive social engagement. Furthermore, our experiences with IGP (e.g., Gigliotti, Morris, Smock, Jarrott, Graham, 2005; Jarrott Bruno, 2003; Jarrott Bruno, 200 7; Jarrott, Gigliotti, Smock, 2006; Jarrott, Gladwell, Gigliotti, Papero 2004; Jarrott et al., 2004; Weintraub Killian, 2007) highlighted interaction as the central mechanism for achieving mutual benefit during IGP. Thus, a code for solitary behavior is relevant as it reflects engagement in a presented activity without social interaction. The first author used the original Play Observation Scale to observe elders during structured IGP (Gladwell Jarrott, 2003), determining that older adults engagement was greater during IGP than non-IGP. However, Gladwell and Jarrott found the scale cumbersome as they gathered salient data as well as information of little contemporary significance to IGP. Furthermore, they violated some of the scales specifications by utilizing the Play Observation Scale in a structured activity setting. We made several adaptations to Rubins Play Observation Scale for use with structured IGP (see Table 1 for descriptions of the scale categories).   First , Rubins social behavior categories included sub-categories indicative of cognitive development; however, given our emphasis on interactions irrespective of developmental abilities, we eliminated cognitive behaviors from our scale. Second, the Play Observation Scale was designed to be used during free play sessions where children self-initiate behaviors. However, intergenerational researchers have repeatedly emphasized the need for structure to optimize IGP (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott, 2006; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), and so we developed the scale with planned IGP in mind. Finally, we expanded the IOS to distinguish between social behaviors with age peers and intergenerational partners (i.e., interactive peer versus interactive intergenerational). The first phase of the study involved qualitative observations of IGP conducted at a shared site intergenerational program serving frail elders and pre-school age children. The observations were then used to modify Rubins Play Observation Scale for use in a structured intergenerational setting. Phase two involved piloting the scale with two observers coding video of IGP and working with the second author to reach consensus and create a master coding scheme for the video sessions. In phase three, the scale was further modified and tested with a larger group of four observers coding video and live IGP. The current paper describes the three phases of the development and initial validation of the Intergenerational Observation Scale (IOS). While the IOS captures both behavior and affect of targeted child and elderly participants, the current paper focuses on social behaviors, which comprise the more complex sub-scale of the instrument. Method Participants Virginia Techs Neighbors Growing Together, is a shared site intergenerational program designed to improve the lives of people across the lifespan through intergenerational collaboration involving teaching, research, and outreach. Neighbors Growing Together includes two co-located programs: Adult Day Services and the Child Development Center for Learning and Research. Adult Day Services provides activities, care, and supervision daily to approximately 15 adults (50+ years old) with cognitive and/or physical impairments. The Child Development Center provides year-round, full-day care for 41 children ages 15 months to 5 years. Through daily programming designed to nurture development, enhance competencies, and facilitate positive social interactions between the generations, Neighbors Growing Together provides high quality services to children, older adults, and their families. Children from each of three classrooms have one to two weekly opportunities to join their elderly â€Å"neig hbors† for IGP, which typically involves three children and three older adults in a variety of activities, such as gardening, art, or sensory projects. Children and adults work together in a group facilitated by staff and students from the Child Development Center and Adult Day Services. Staff partners plan and implement activities that support an overarching goal of positive interactions. Activities further target developmental goals for both generations, such as fine motor skills or cooperation. Children and adults meet in a shared space adjoining the two programs. Child- and adult-sized chairs designed to put all participants at eye level and developmentally appropriate books and art materials are provided. Procedures Phase 1: Scale development In fall 2005, four research students gathered qualitative observations of IGP involving Adult Day Services participants and Child Development Center children. Observers attended different intergenerational sessions. Each week, observers had a distinct focus, starting with holistic observation to orient the observers to the setting and proceeding to target the environment, the participants, and the facilitators. Following their weekly observations, the observers and the first and second authors discussed the observational data, focusing on the interactions between participating children and elders and factors that influenced those interactions. After observing 3-5 intergenerational sessions apiece, observers read and reviewed the IOS scale and codebook developed by Gladwell and Jarrott (2003) and closely mirroring the Play Observation Scale developed by Rubin (2001). They discussed how well the categories applied to the intergenerational context they observed and how to modify the s cale to reflect the social behaviors critical to intergenerational interactions in planned activities. Through an iterative process, the first two authors used observers notes and conversations to modify the Play Observation Scale to capture data reflecting the interactive process of IGP. Based on the observations from Phase 1, we further developed and refined the IOS (see Table 1). The scale builds on earlier observational research (Rubin, 2001) by coding participants behavior and affect and the affect of intergenerational partners with whom a target participant interacts.   The IOS was developed for live coding. It captures observations for the duration of an intergenerational activity, which tends to last 15-30 minutes. Each observer identifies 4-5 participants for observation and watches them for 1-2 minutes to become familiar with the participants behaviors before beginning to record data. He or she codes a participant for one 15-second interval, then codes the next pa rticipant for 15 seconds, followed by the third participant, etc. After the last participant is coded, the observer cycles back to begin observing participant one again. All observers in a session start coding when the facilitators begin the activity and end when the activity completes. When coding, if a behavior occurs for the majority of the coding interval, it is coded as the predominant behavior. When multiple behaviors are observed for equal intervals during a 15-second coding episode, we use the following hierarchy to code the predominant behavior most indicative of intergenerational interactions: Interactive Intergenerational, Parallel Intergenerational, Interactive Peer, Parallel Peer, Staff, Watching, Solitary, and Unoccupied. Phase 2: Establishment of reliability Video coding of the observations was introduced during Phase 2 of scale development because learning the IOS through the use of video has several advantages. When first learning the scale, observers watched a 15-second interval repeatedly to better understand the IOS behavioral scoring. The video coding procedure allowed observers to review their coding with the second author, who is experienced in observational coding. Weekly meetings were held during which observers coding was reviewed and discussed until observers reached a consensus on what behaviors constituted the IOS categories. Weekly review helped observers achieve acceptable reliability in assigning predominant codes to participants social behaviors. The video procedure enabled us to refine the IOS manual. The video coding process began with two observers who both had experience with live coding during IGP. After studying the manual, observers filmed three weekly sessions of planned IGP between the elders and each of the three classrooms of children (one session per classroom per week). The procedure for using video to establish acceptable reliability was completed in three steps. First, observers independently coded sessions in 15-second intervals and re-watched these as many times as necessary to determine the predominant social behavior. In the second step, observers more closely approximated live coding by watching the 15-second intervals on video only once to code the predominant social behavior.   In the third step, observers coded live sessions (scoring participant behaviors individually but observing the same participants at the same intervals) and filmed the activities, which allowed observers to review their coding at the weekly meetings and resolve discrepancies. Based on the consensus between the two coders and the expert coder, master coding sheets were developed indicating agreement on the predominant behavior for each 15-second interval of the coded sessions. Before ob servers could proceed to the next step in the training process, they had to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability measured by Cohens kappa. A kappa score of .60 or higher was considered acceptable (Cohen, 1960). The kappa scores for the two observers in Phase 2 were .67 for the first step, .85 for the second step, and .81 for the live coding in the third step. Replication of reliability In Phase 3, we used the IOS video coding procedure to train four new observers. In addition to establishing that the video coding procedure would work with observers new to the IOS, we wanted to determine the amount of training necessary to achieve acceptable reliability with our 3-step process. The observers started with an introductory period where they read the manual and watched live IGP to observe the range of behaviors common to IGP. Observers attended weekly meetings where they watched IGP videos and received instruction on using the IOS. The introductory period lasted approximately 3 weeks or until observers felt comfortable with the coding, which was an additional 2 weeks for one of the observers. After the introductory period, the observers started on step 1 in the video coding procedure. Each step lasted approximately 4 weeks. At the weekly coding meetings, observers reviewed any discrepancies between their coding and the master codes determined in Phase 2. Once t he observers achieved acceptable reliability in step 1, they moved on to step 2. Coding pairs were formed, and they coded live IGP during step 3, achieving acceptable kappas of .92, .69, and .75. Discussion In the current paper, we discuss the development of the IOS, a scale designed to measure young and old participants social interaction and affect during IGP.   In developing the IOS, we began with qualitative observations of IGP to refine a well-established child development observational scale (Rubin, 2001). We modified the scale for observations of elder and child participants in a typical range of intergenerational programs.   Based on two groups of observers, we present a system for training individuals to use the scale and establish inter-rater reliability.   Currently, the use of standardized measure within the field of IGP research is extremely limited, and our goal is to develop a scale to address this need. The IOS addresses several of Kuehnes (2003) recommendations for advancing   intergenerational research and evaluation.   First, the IOS is grounded in theory that shaped our view of positive IGP outcomes. Personhood theory (Kitwood Bredin, 1992) leads us to intergenerational relationships as a once common source of positive social interaction for many elders that can continue to support their well-being in late life. Contact theory (Allport, 1954; Pettigrew Tropp, 2000) elucidates necessary conditions for positive intergroup exchange, such as that between youth and elders. The conditions of cooperation and shared goals inform our expectation that the central mechanism of effective IGP is positive intergenerational interactions. The IOS captures the level of interactive behaviors between generations, thus reflecting the presence or absence of cooperation and shared goals of participants. Second, we draw from standardized measures of social interaction, namely the work of Parten (1933) and Rubin (2001).   Working from their concepts, we qualitatively looked at the behaviors seen during IGP.   We then refined the social behaviors described within Rubins scale to fit an intergenerational population and to capture levels o f social engagement or interaction during IGP.   Third, we steer away from the over-reliance on attitudinal measures, moving instead to behavioral and affective outcomes of IGP. Fourth, by taking steps to develop a standardized scale, we contribute to the research tools available to IGP researchers, which increases the capacity to compare outcomes across studies, thus advancing the collective understanding of IGP. Our results establish the IOS as a replicable measure of social interactions during IGP.   The three-step process we used to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability proved effective with two groups of observers. The process allows observers to develop a thorough understanding of the social behaviors in the IOS. Observers coding is checked against the master coding scheme to insure observers accuracy coding observed behaviors.   The master coding scheme allows for faster, more accurate training on the use of the IOS. Now that we have developed a successful p rocess for training observers to use the IOS and achieve acceptable inter-rater, observers could be trained relatively quickly, most likely within four to eight weeks. A reliable, quick training method will allow data collection to begin at an earlier date and will allow more researchers to use the scale with confidence. An important strength of the IOS is its utility with both generations of IGP participants. Most research on individual outcomes of IGP participation focuses on one generation or the other (e.g., Middlecamp Gross 2002), neglecting the experiences of the other generation. When researchers do evaluate both age groups, they typically use non-parallel measures because parallel scales for disparate age groups rarely exist.   Not only will the IOS allow for standardized data collection across sites; it enables standardized data collection across generations. We expect the IOS to yield valuable process and outcome data for practitioners and researchers. Con sidering first the IOS as a source of outcome data, a program introducing or modifying an IGP could, for example, use IOS data to determine the affect and social behavior of participants during IGP with a goal of achieving high levels of positive affect, increasing intergenerational interaction, and reducing inactivity. In regards to process data, the IOS can be used in conjunction with salient outcome measures (e.g., depression or attitudes towards aging) to help interpret the effects of IGP (another recommendation by Kuehne, 2003). In asserting that IGP positively affects (or does not affect) targeted outcomes, researchers analyses would be strengthened by including data on the level of intergenerational interaction and affect that transpired among participants. For example, Seefeldt (1987) reported that children who participated in regular intergenerational visits to a nursing home had worse attitudes about aging than children who did not.   These findings would have been more easily interpreted if they incorporated process data such as the affect and level of interaction between children and elders.   Because these data were not included in the analyses, readers are left to speculate whether all IGP involving nursing home residents would negatively affect childrens attitudes or if the nature of the IGP in that study contributed to the negative outcomes. Seefeldt described IGP that yielded little support for intergenerational interaction (i.e., children performing in the center of the room, surrounded by the elders). She also indicated that elders were largely non-responsive to the children, suggesting that the negative outcomes may have been due to the nature of the IGP. While IGP professionals advocate standards of IGP practice (Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Rosebrook Larkin, 2003), significant variability on dimensions of IGP likely affects targeted outcomes and should be assessed. By capturing data that reflect the process of connecting generations, the IOS promotes understanding of why IGP succeeds or fails. As outlined above, the IOS provides many benefits for IGP research and evaluation. Our next step in establishing the scales value and utility to the intergenerational field entails establishing the reliability for coding occurrence of behaviors and predominance and occurrence of affect. Second, we plan to use a variety of means to establish validity, including video training to address substantive validity, expert panels to assess content validity, and statistical modeling of IOS data and related measures to determine convergent or divergent validity. Third, the scale was developed within the Neighbors Growing Together shared site intergenerational program, which involves structured programming between preschoolers and frail older adults. Generalizability is a critical indicator of validity and depends on the scales utility across intergenerational sites, populations, and programmatic approaches. Fourth, the behavior c ategory codes are developmentally salient for pre-school age children and frail elders; we need to determine if the categories will be equally informative when applied to older children and well elders. Finally, the scale should be tested across cultures to support Kuehnes (2003) recommendation to take a more global view of IGP innovation. Initial indicators reveal that the IOS could become a useful tool to researchers and practitioners alike. As they seek to develop, improve, and sustain IGP while linking programming data to instrumental outcomes of interest to practitioners and funders, the availability of a standardized scale appropriate for use with young and old will prove invaluable. At a time characterized by tremendous creative energy and innovation in the intergenerational field, the IOS can capture the essence of IGP as practitioners support meaningful outcomes through intergenerational relationships. References Allen-Burge, R., Burgio, L. D., Bourgeois, M. S., Sims, R., Nunnikhoven, J. (2001). Increasing communication among nursing home residents.   Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 7, 213-230. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Camp, C. J., Judge, K. S., Bye, C. A., Fox, K. M., Bowden, J., Bell, M., et al.. (1997). An intergenerational program for persons with dementia using Montessori methods. The Gerontologist, 37, 688-692. Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37-46. Eggebeen, D. J., Davey, A. (1998). Do safety nets work? The role of anticipated help in times of need. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 939-950. Eheart, B. K., Hopping, D. (2001). Generations of hope. Children and Youth Services Review, 23, 675-682 Epstein, A. S., Boisvert, C. (2006). Lets do something together: Identifying effective components of intergenerational programs. J ournal of Intergenerational Relationships, 4(3), 87-109. Gigliotti, C. M., Morris, M., Smock, S., Jarrott, S. E., Graham, B. (2005). Supporting community through an intergenerational summer program involving persons with dementia and pre-school children. Educational Gerontology, 31, 425-441. Gladwell, M. S., Jarrott, S. E. (2003, November). An observational assessment of elders with dementia during intergenerational activities. Poster presented at the meetings of the Gerontological Society of America, San Diego, CA. Goyer, A., Zuses, R. (1998). Intergenerational Shared Site Project, A Study of Co-located Programs and Services for Children, Youth, and Older Adults: Final Report. Washington, DC: AARP. Ice, G. H. (2002). Daily life in a nursing home: Has it changed in 25 years?   Journal of Aging Studies, 16, 345-359. Jantz, R. K., Seefeldt, C., Galper, A., Serlock, K. (1977). Childrens attitudes toward the elderly. Social Education, 41, 518-523. Jarrott, S. E. (2006). Tried and true: A guide to successful intergenerational activities at shared site programs. Washington, DC: Generations United. [Electronic version available at www.gu.org] Jarrott, S. E., Bruno, K. A. (2003). Intergenerational Activities Involving Persons with Dementia: An Observational Assessment. American Journal of Alzheimers and Related Diseases, 18, 31-38. Jarrott, S. E., Bruno, K. (2007). Shared site intergenerational programs: A case study. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 26, 239-257. Jarrott, S. E. Gigliotti, C. M., Smock, S. A.,   (2006). Where do we stand? Testing the foundation of a shared site intergenerational program. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 4. Jarrott, S. E., Gladwell, M. S., Gigliotti, C. M., Papero, A. L. (2004). Fostering intergenerational community between child adult care programs: A Results Management approach. Canadian Children, 29(2), 4-13. Jarrott, S. E., Morris, M., Kemp, A. J., Stremmel, A. (2004, November ). Intergenerational cross-training partners: Collaboration at a shared site community. Paper presented at the meetings of the Gerontological Society of America, Washington, D.C. Kitwood, T. Bredin, K. (1992). Towards a theory of dementia care: Personhood and well-being. Aging and Society, 12, 269-287. Kocarnik, R. A., Ponzetti, J. J. (1986). The influence of intergenerational contact on child care participants attitudes toward the elderly. Child Care Quarterly 15(4), 244-250. Kuehne, V.S. (2003). The state of our art: Intergenerational program research and evaluation: Part one. Journal of intergenerational Relationships, 1(1), 145-161. Larkin, E., Newman, S. (2001). Benefits of intergenerational staffing in preschools.   Educational Gerontology, 27, 373-385. Lichtenstein, M. J., Pruski, L. A., Marshall, C. E., Blalock, C. L., Murphy, D. L., Plaetke, R., et al. (2001). The Positively Aging  ® teaching materials improve middle school students images of older peo ple. The Gerontologist, 41, 322-332. Marx, M. S., Pannell, A. R., Parpura-Gill, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J. (2004). Direct observations of children at risk for academic failure: Benefits of an intergenerational visiting program. Educational Gerontology, 30, 663-675. Meshel, D. S., McGlynn, R. P. (2004). Intergenerational contact, attitudes, and stereotypes of adolescents and older people. Educational Gerontology, 30, 457-479. Middlecamp, M., Gross, D. (2002). Intergenerational daycare and preschoolers attitudes about aging. Educational Gerontology, 28, 271-288. Newman, S., Smith, T. B. (1999). Developmental theories as the basis for intergenerational programs. In S. Newman, C. R. Ward, T. B. Smith, J. O. Wilson J. M. McCrea (Eds.), Intergenerational programs: Past, present, and future (pp. 3-19). Washington, D.C.: Taylor Francis. Newman, S., Karip, E., Faux, R. B. (1995). Everyday memory function of older adults: The impact of intergenerational school volunteer pro grams. Educational Gerontology, 21, 569-580. Orsulic-Jeras, S., Judge, K. S., Camp, C. J. (2000). Montessori-based activities for long-term care residents with advanced dementia: Effects on engagement and affect. The Gerontologist, 40, 107-111. Parten, M. (1933). Social play among preschool children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 136-147. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85. Pettigrew, T. F., Tropp, L. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent meta-analytic findings. In Oskamp, S. (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: Social psychological perspectives. 93-114. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Rosebrook, V. Larkin, E. (2003). Introducing standards and guidelines: A rationale for defining the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of intergenerational practice. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 1, 133-144. Rubin, K. H. (2001). The Play Observation Scale. University of Marylan d, College Park, MD. Salari, S. (2002). Intergenerational partnerships in adult day centers: Importance of age-appropriate environments and behaviors. The Gerontologist, 42, 321-333. Salari, S., Rich, M.   (2001).   Social and environmental infantilization of aged persons: Observations in two adult day care centers.   International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 52, 115-134. Seefeldt, C. (1987). The effects of preschoolers visits to a nursing home. The Gerontologist, 27, 228-232. Taylor, A. S., LoSciuto, L., Fox, M., Hilbert, S. M., Sonkowsky, M. (1999). The mentoring factor: Evaluation of the Across Ages intergenerational approach to drug abuse prevention. Child Youth Services, 20, 77-99. Teri, L., Gibbons, L. E., McCurry, S. M., Logsdon, R. G., Buchner, D. M., Barlow, W. E., et al., (2003). Exercise plus behavioral management in patients with Alzheimers disease: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 290, 2015-2022. Underwood, H. L., Dorfman, L. T. (2006). A view from the other side: Elders reactions to intergenerational Service-Learning. Journal of Intergenerational Learning, 4(2), 43-60. Voelkl, J. E. (1986). Effects of institutionalization upon residents of extended care facilities. Activities, Adaptation, and Aging, 8, 37-46. Weintraub, A.P.C., Killian, T. S.,(2007). Intergenerational programming: Older persons perceptions of its impact. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 26, 370-384 Xaverius, P. K., Matthews, R. M. (2003). Evaluating the impact of intergenerational activities on elders engagement and expressiveness levels in two settings. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 1(4), 53-70. Table 1 Description of categories in the Intergenerational Observation Scale (IOS) Behavior Description Interactive Intergenerational To interact with a member of the other generation of participants, usually with a common goal or purpose. Parallel Intergenerational To engage in a similar activity beside (but not with) IG others, while acknowledging intergenerational partner(s). Interactive Peer To interact with a participant from the targets program, usually with a common goal or purpose. Parallel Peer To engage in a similar activity beside (but not with) program peers, while acknowledging peers. Staff Interactive or parallel behavior with a staff member from either program w/o peer or intergenerational behavior. Watching To watch (or listen to) the activities of others. Solitary To engage in an activity alone without acknowledgment of or interaction with others. Unoccupied Lack of goal or focus, includes repetitive, self-stimulating behavior.

Construction Economics - 2366 Words

1|P ag e Introduction World Construction Industry is one of the biggest industries in the whole world. The contribution of this industry towards the global GDP revolves around one-tenth of the total amount. World Construction Industry is also a potential employment generator and provides work to almost seven percent of the total employed person in the whole world. The extent of this industry has become so vast that the energy, in the form of electricity or fuel, consumed by it hovers around two-fifth of the total energy consumed all over the globe. The resources that are utilized in World Construction Industry is also staggeringly high and itself consumes fifty percent of the total world resources. Macroeconomics Literature review†¦show more content†¦He finds that residential investment shocks are more important in the determination of GDP than non-residential investment shocks. 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The Importance Of Regular Exercise And Good Nutrition

Introduction Regular exercise and good nutrition play an important role in your ability to sustain your complete health and quality of life. Consistent exercise and proper nutrition can help maintain Body Mass Index (BMI), it is effective in weight management, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, muscular endurance and strength (enhanced physical performance) and mental stimulation and stability. There has been an increasing curiosity in how nutrition and physical activity can improve mental health thus resulting in higher academic achievements. There is a plethora of research available to show how brain function and learning can be benefitted through nutrition. There is also the belief that rationalising, concentration and consequently academic achievement can be obtained through higher levels of physical activity. Matric students are given the â€Å"privilege† of not being compelled into participating in physical activity. 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Explain How Shakespeare Creates Dramatic Tension In Act Three Scene Five Essay Example For Students

Explain How Shakespeare Creates Dramatic Tension In  Act Three Scene Five Essay Ask people to give an example of a rich mixture of romantic lyricism, crammed with deadly enmity, tantalizing love, clandestine marriage, farce and heart breaking tragedy, most would respond with Romeo and Juliet, the remarkable tale of star crossed lovers, is one of the most famous literary tragedies in history. Written in 1595, Shakespeare converses the story of devoted teenagers in a tumultuous world of sadness and grief as they defy all known laws of their time, in pursuit of forbidden love and the consequences faced for their actions; inevitably bringing them to their suicidal deaths. Leading to the scrutiny of Act Three Scene Five, which could arguably be, the most pivotal scene of the overall play. Dramatic tension is one of the most vital devices used in this scene with the feeling of trepidation, fear and ambiguity cascading from the scene, the string of events in which lead to the lovers death marked love, is plunged into motion. The scene takes place after Romeos banishment by the Prince from Verona for the death of Tybalt immediately we do exile him hencethat hour will be his last, the eviction of Romeo puts a strain on Romeo and Juliets relationship as his life will now be jeopardy if he is found in the city, commiseration is felt for Juliet as the corollary of the exile, as she is presently torn between her loyalty to her family and her devotion to her husband As Act 3 Scene 4 concludes, a considerable amount of dramatic irony is created, since the audience knows Capulet has agree to the marrying of Juliet to Paris. All these events have a destroying influence on Romeo and Juliets attempt to live in love. Setting a tragic tone for the beginning of the following scene. The spectators are wrench back to reality as they realise the veracity of the situation, as it befalls flagrant to the audience the implausibility that their marriage will be long-lived, as in a feud-ravaged world, only the will of the sword lives. Shakespeare as added to the sense of impending disaster and amplifies the contrast between impetuous hate and reckless love. Throughout Act Three Scene Five, one of the most integral part to the play, the plot simultaneously becomes more intense, as we discover the full implications of what Juliet has done, by eloping with Romeo. The ideal of romantic love, so lyrically propagated by the plays hero and heroine, may, in reality, have brought not only happiness but also misery, because it sets standards of emotional intensity, which in life may seldom be lastingly attained. Juliet has placed herself in a situation in which, not only can she no longer marry the suitor her parents have chosen. Juliet has married a man in which she fears she may never meet again. The scene adds to the complexity of Juliets problem. Juliet stands up to Lady and Lord Capulet expressing her wishes not to marry Paris. The audience are shown the maturity of Juliet and her she has grown from the earlier scenes of the play. Lord Capulet outraged about Juliets disobedience, threatens to disown Juliet if she does not do as he pleased. Ill give you to my friend . . . Ill not be foresworn. Juliet having lost the support of her father and mother turns to the nurse for help. This is soon proved a wrong decision to make when she is told by the nurse, I think it best you married with the county. Whereas before Juliet relied on her nurse for support, she as now been left completely introverted. This increases the tension, as Juliet frantically tries to think of a workable solution. Increasing emotion and tension from the audience, as Juliets shattered relationships and lost of love leaves her with an ultimatum, on whether she should be disloyal to her husband and God, and marry Paris leading to Saint Peter not making Juliet a joyful bride, as for committing such a sin as Bigamy. Juliet will instantaneously be condemned to eternity in hell, which seems to now be inevitable; as she also contemplates implementing suicide. If all else fails, myself have power to die. Which is more of a calamitous sin than bigamy. Foreshadowing the future events with a mildewed sense of obscurity and misery. The opening of Act Three Scene Five is pivotal, Romeo and Juliet have just spent their first night together as man and wife, and taking into consideration the vital events, which have just taken place, the fate of Romeo and Juliet, lay at stake. Shakespeare opens the scene with a very tranquil mood. The atmosphere in Act 3 scene 5 is still love orientated and fairly calm however there is a growing element of suspense and fear. Juliet awakens to her husband, but refuses to distinguish the peril of Romeos presence, she instead tries to convince him that it is still night, It is not yet near day . . . fearful hollow of thine ear. Romeo and Juliet both use word play and oxymorons to create dramatic effect. Some say the lark to More light and light, more dark and dark our woes. The fact that Romeo and Juliet share this rhyming couplet shows how they can read each others mind and symbolise to the audience how much they are in love. The antithesis, which includes repetition also, balances night and day. This is dramatically effective as the audience would feel very sympathetic towards Romeo and Juliet realise that his woes are mixed with happiness. The imagery in this scene consists of both night/day and light/dark. Traditionally you associate night with dark and light with day. Romeo and Juliet defy this convention as they can only see each other at night, O now be gone, more light and light it grows, More light and light, more dark and dark are woes, these quotes only give us a sense that the couple can only see each other at night but also there is a sense of foreboding and that one way or the other the couple will never be allowed to stay together because of the feud between their families, Shakespeare has cleverly inserted the two opposites of night with day together and light with dark together, to show that although Romeo and Juliet are both opposites, the use of the two words in the same sentence show that they two can till be used together despite it defying all known laws. Juliets continuity to combat the coming of the light, creates a great deal of apprehension among the Elizabethan audiences as although the audience knows both Romeo and Juliet will die, the precise moment is still unknown, and the awareness that if Romeo is caught he will be killed, causes the atmosphere of the scene to becomes tinted with fear. Juliet tries to convince herself as well as Romeo that it is not yet time for him to leave, this generates empathy and dramatic apprehension as the audience ruminate what will come to pass, if Romeo believes her and resides. As the pragmatism of their situation, seizes both Romeo and Juliet it becomes inevitable that Romeo must leave before morning, or he shall be put to death. Night candles are burnt out I must be gone and live or stay and die. Juliet demonstrates tension as although she realises that Romeo must depart, she defies herself nevertheless and solicits him to stay. Romeo expresses to Juliet, Let me be tane, let me be put to death, and here he is referring to if he stays with Juliet he will be found and killed. The welcoming of death so openly Come, death, and welcome! Juliet wills it so. Would climax to become very tragic at the end, for the reason that, the way in which death is being discussed in such a light-hearted manner would be tragically ironic, the audience knows Romeo will die, because of the affair. The audience empathises with the sincerity of their love, bringing the characters to life as our emotions for the star-crossed lovers strengthens. With Romeo beginning to subside to Juliets pleads for him to stay, the sudden entry of the Nurse as she comes to presage Juliet; your lady mother is coming to your chamber. Changes the speed of the scene drastically. This unexpected entrance of the Nurse causes a greater quantity of angst, as Romeo and Juliet have to promptly say their goodbyes, not knowing when they shall next convene again, trepidation is wrought as they hurry not to be caught, initiating both dramatic tension and irony as we know what is to come that the characters do not. With a solitary concluding hug and kiss, Romeo bids Juliet a tearful poignant farewell, as she stands at her window. Here, the lovers experience visions that blatantly foreshadow the end of the play. This is to be the last moment they spend alive in each others company. As Romeo finally makes his descent down the balcony to his exile, the dialogue between both Romeo and Juliet contains many dramatic ironies in reference to death. Juliet, with dramatic irony, asks: O thinkst thou we shall meet again? Romeo bravely tries to comfort her reassuring Juliet that they will soon meet again I doubt it not, and all these woes shall serve for sweet discourses in our times to come. Looking down upon Romeo from her balcony, Juliet says with chilling foreboding: O God, I have an ill-divining soul! / Methinks I see thee, now thou art so low, / As one dead in the bottom of a tomb. / Either my eyesight fails, or thou lookst pale. Juliets fear amplifies the emotional intensity of the scene and is what is anon, as the tragedy is now gathering momentum. This would work for the contemporary audience of Shakespeares era, as they firmly believed in fate and destiny. It is also tragically ironic, not only as the audience, from listening to the chorus, know that Romeo will die, but also because next time she sees him, he will be dead. But it is she who tragically who is at the bottom of the tomb. Although a modern audience may miss this reference, an Elizabethan audience almost would definitely notice, especially when Romeo replies, Dry sorrow drinks our blood. Adieu, Adieu. Shakespeare includes the exploitation of social context to hint to the audience that something is to happen. As people in the time of Shakespeare believed that sorrow thinned your blood, which is mocking as the tragedy of the couple, is the sorrow of losing each other. In modern society today, most young people in the westernise world often take it for granted that marriage should be based on the free choice of loving partners. This is now the accepted belief, before, however it was believed marriage was a choice (at least among the upper-class), which was decided by the older members of the families, concerned. Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet helped the modern view to triumph over the older view. To an Elizabethan audience the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet laid not so much in their ill-starred romance as in the way they brought destruction upon themselves by violating the norms of their society. An Elizabethan audience would be swept away enough with the bewitching passion of Romeo and Juliet to feel some sympathy with the young couple, and would see clearly Juliets obligation laid with Romeo. Tension within Act Three Scene Five is escalated to its peak through the use of verbal ambiguity and paradoxes within Juliets dialogue with Lady Capulet. Evermore weeping for your cousins death? What, wilt thou wash him from his grave with tears? to But much of grief shows still some want of wit. The unsympathetic tone Lady Capulet uses here in which questioned Juliets intelligence by saying that Juliet cannot bring back Tybalt by crying, would hold a great deal of dramatic irony for the audience, as although Lady Capulet is questioning Juliet intelligence, it is indeed Lady Capulets intelligence which is being questioned as the tears Juliet is crying is for Romeo not Tybalt. An Elizabethan audience might have understood better of Lady Capulets lack of sympathy as it was common for people to lose family members because of the poor medical care, diseases and illnesses around. This is a way in which Shakespeare takes advantage of social context to cleverly combine with Juliets ambigui ty. Trepidation and apprehension is used in this scene particularly throughout Lady Capulet and Juliets discussion about Romeo. Juliet uses double meanings in everything she says, for example, Indeed I never shall be satisfied with Romeo, till I behold him-dead- is my poor heart vexed so for a kinsman vexed. Juliet has manipulated the language to disguise her true feelings from her mother. Lady Capulet believes that Juliet wants to gain revenge on Romeo, however what Juliet really means that she will ever be satisfied until she beholds Romeo because she misses him so much. The audience would sympathise with Juliet even more due to Lady Capulet harsh language in which she condemns Romeo to death, he shall soon keep Tybalt company. This speech is not only vindictive for Juliet, but as it contains a large amount of dramatic tension and irony as well, as with Romeo death so will come Juliets as well, as Juliet will kill herself. This creates immense angst among the audience for the reason t hat only the spectators and Juliet can identify what is going on. Juliets ambiguity expressions cause the addressees to feel even more uneasiness of future events because they know Juliet is trying to be subtle yet truthful to her mother and her husband as well. The audience becomes concerned for Juliet as they wonder Lady Capulet will catch on to the true meaning of Juliets speeches. Shakespeare also successfully injects irony into Lady Capulets speech by having her tell Juliet that she will give Romeo an unaccustomd dram. This is ironic because Romeo does in fact die from poisoning. Further irony is added to the scene when Juliet questions, I wonder at this haste, that I must be wed. Juliet contradicts herself largely with this quote, as the Elizabethan audience would question Juliets marriage to Romeo to be sudden as well, as Juliet in Act Two Scene Two herself proclaims she had not yet spoken a hundred words to Romeo. Yet proposes marriage to Romeo for the following day after their first meeting. An Elizabethan audience would consider this remark to hold a vast amount of dramatic irony and would find it amusing, at the way in which, Juliet is trying to act like a woman, but still insists in contradicting herself similar to a child. Shakespeare intensifies the strain on the parent child relationship when Juliets tries to keep the peace and news of her secret marriage from her mother; Juliet remains truthful to her mother joyful tidings of the engagement to Paris. Now by Saint Peters Church, and Peter too, He shall not make me there a joyful bride. to and when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate rather than Paris. These are news indeed. This oath is very strong especially for an Elizabethan audience. The audience would be shocked at Juliets outburst at her unsympathetic mother. The audience would be shocked at this oath made by Juliet considering she has sworn by God, which in the time of Shakespeare would have been like swearing. This is dramatically effective because the use of imperatives and short simple statements would enhance the tension massively onto the audience. When lady Capulet says Here comes your Father, tell him so yourself, and see how he will take it at your hands. The audience inevitably acknowledge that further tragedy is ahead and that this is a first sign that Juliets mother has turned her back on Juliet. The audience at this point would feel agitated at this commotion, yet compassion for Juliets imminent trouble with her father. Tension is escalated essentially within the scene when Lady Capulet tells Lord Capulet of Juliets disobedience and exclaims further I would the fool was married to her grave. This statement holds an heavy emphasise of dramatic irony, as an Elizabethan audience would understand from this statement, although it has been said in a malicious and callous manner, it still holds future predictions of the death of Romeo and Juliet, as Juliet is married to her grave, for the reason that, due to Juliets marriage to Romeo, and her awakening to find Romeo dead, is it that Juliet commits suicide. Shylock is a victim or a villain EssayElizabethan life was lived according to a Great Chain of Being; this is a powerful visual metaphor for the hierarchy of society. It ranks all forms of higher and lower life; the male alone represents humans. In some variations, women and children are placed below men as they were thought of as inferior, this is clearly represented in Romeo and Juliet, as Lord Capulet appears to have authority over his daughter, Juliet, and his wife, Lady Capulet. A childs duty towards their parents was to be dutiful and respectful, which was alike Juliets behaviour at the beginning of the play, Madam, I an here. What is your will? Children of the Elizabethan epoch were seen to be the property of their parents to with as they pleased, and were expected to follow their parents orders to the letter and always did. However, Shakespeare went against this theory, when he changed Juliets attitude towards her parents due to her love for Romeo and desperation to be with him. Shakespeare portrayed the lack of Parent/ Child relationship to play a vital factor in the death of Romeo and Juliet; this is illustrated in Act three Scene five where his attitude and earlier love towards Juliet changes when she refuses to marry Paris. He calls Juliet a disobedient wretch and informs her that you be mine, Ill give you to my friend; and you be not, hang, beg, starve, die in the streets. This quotation contradicts his concern for Juliet in previous scenes, as now he no longer sees her as daughter, but as his own personal possession. These quotations show Capulet to have a split personality; as he doesnt know what to think of Juliet. This may be because he does not know her as many 1st class fathers had very little association and relationships with their children. Lady Capulet, like Lord Capulet does not know her daughter properly either. In Act one Scene Three when Lady Capulet is in the room with Juliet, she tells the nurse to give leave a while. Then, once alone with Juliet she realises she does not know Juliet and call for the nurse to come back again. This shows how parents at this time were not familiar with their children. If the audience explores Juliets relationship with her nurse, they will see it is much stronger than that with her mother. Nurse calls Juliet the prettiest babe that eer nursed. This exemplifies the fact that the nurse has raised Juliet from a baby and feels parental love towards Juliet as she is like her own child. A modern audience will react sympathetically towards Juliet knowing that she is not close to her parents. This is because in todays society you normally raise your own children. Shakespeares time period marked a time where marriage was an important aspect of peoples lives. The ways in which people were matched and married was very evident in many of his works as he strove to depict love and the relationships that developed between men and women. The procedures to inheritance are an important aspect of marriage in that it gives people a better understanding of the reasons behind the way marriages were handled around the Renaissance era. Shakespeares work can be used in comparison to other poets of different times to attest to the continuity of the fundamental features of marriage over the centuries. His work still has a compelling effect on its readers today because it focuses on the sincerity of the heart, often defying basic rules of society, even in modern times. Shakespeare through the use of his work displayed moral lessons on marriage emphasizes the risks and consequences of marriage for financial conveniences and inheritances rather than for love. In the Shakespearean Era because a daughters only real future lay in marriage, she had less freedom over her choice in a mate. Her family had to make sure she would be provided for. In this respect, daughters were considered to be a financial burdens on their parents, hence their decision to get their daughter married into a wealthy family as soon as they could. This is displayed to a great extent in the Capulets choice of Juliet to wed Paris at the tender age of thirteen. Shakespeare offered his Elizabethan audience an in depth insight, to the perceptions of adolescent behaviours of the Shakespeareans era. Romeo and Juliet throughout the play are shown to have displayed many forms of adolescence behaviour. Romeo is described as a young man in which is struggling on the definition of what a real man is, in male dominated society in which men are suppose to be strong and dominate members of society, Romeo is shown to be worried of his feelings for others and if it makes him weak gentle Romeo. When Romeo, first espies Juliet whilst at the Capulets ball, he again becomes allure into his emotions, idealizing Juliet through uses of such phrases as; Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight/ for I neer saw true beauty till this night, It makes glorious poetry, but to both the Elizabethan and modern audiences the image of an love sick adolescence is created, as the detailing perfection of the intense crush on Juliet which Romeo mistaken for love, in order to move on from his previous unrequited love for Rosaline, inexorably causes his death. Juliet is exemplified to be in the sub phase of mid-adolescence through many of her actions throughout the play. Knowing this Shakespeare repeatedly reminds his audience Juliet as not seen the change of fourteen years. Although this, the audience are told Juliet has past her menarche; and therefore is expected to not only marry but to bear children has well. Lady Capulet is quite explicit about this: Younger than you / here in Verona, ladies of esteem / are already mothers; by my count/ I was your mother much upon these years that you are now a maid. Here Shakespeare tells us something about the times of which, and perhaps in which, he was writing; apparently his audience would not have thought such expectations of a 13-year-old girl unusual or outrageous. Yet, although viewed by the adults by the adults in her world as a social and biological woman, she is, at least initially, very much a latency-like child; when her mother summons her to talk of marriage, Juliet replies, without irony, Madam, I am here, what is your will? When her mother proposes that she should consider Paris as a potential husband, Juliet submissively responds, Ill look to like, if looking liking move, /But no more deep will I endart my eye / than your consent gives strength to make it fly. Juliet is here presented as a model preadolescent girl, decorous, subservient and deferential. Passion, however, transforms her. As her encounter at the ball with Romeo inflames her nascent libido, she is flung headlong into adolescence. The process of object removal is instantaneous; her loyalty and devotion to her parents and to her entire family are swept away, supplanted by her newfound attachment to her once loathed enemy. Oh, Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo? / Refuse thy father and refuse thy name, / Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn by my love / And Ill no longer be a Capulet! Not only as Juliet become rebellious, she becomes devious and deceptive lying to her mother, defying her father, equivocating to them both. They believe she is mourning the death of her cousin Tybalt when in fact she is in despair about the banishment of her lover Romeo who has killed him. Fragments of Juliets immaturity are still shown regardless of Juliet new mature attitude she has taken upon herself, an example of this is after Romeo and Juliets first night together, and it is time for Romeo to leave to refuse to relinquish the thought and even though knowing Romeos life is danger continues in transforming the night into day, here she is able to transform the day into the night. But just as their vows to throw off their names did not succeed in overcoming the social institutions that have plagued them, she cannot change time. Juliet brief denial of Romeos impending danger, as shown a great deal of selfishness and child like behaviour, as she was willingly to convince Romeo it was still night in order for him to stay longer even despite the consciences if he was to be caught. In the confrontation with her parents after Romeos departure, Juliet shows her full maturity. She dominates the conversation with her mother, who cannot keep up with Juliets intelligence and therefore has no idea that Juliet is proclaiming her love for Romeo under the guise of saying just the opposite. Her decision to break from the counsel of her disloyal Nurse-and in fact to exclude her Nurse from any part in her future actions-is another step in her development. Having a nurse is a mark of childhood; by abandoning her nurse and upholding her loyalty toward her husband, Juliet steps fully out of girlhood and into womanhood. Despite this, Juliet shows she still not yet a full woman through her constant dependency on other people for help, such as after Juliets dispute with Lord Capulet she turns firstly to Lady Capulet for help, where Juliet is told Speak not to me, for Ill not speak a word, Juliet frantic, begs the Nurse how shall this be prevented, having not heard what she wanted to hear from the Nurse. Juliet refuses to acknowledge the decision, deciding finally on seeking help and support from the Friar Lawrence, and plans if he is unable to conduct a convenient decision for Juliet she will take her life. If all else fail, myself have power to die. This portrays Juliets advancement into womanhood to be shortcoming, as although Juliet is shown to thrive for independence, she still does not know how to handle the responsibility that comes with it, and therefore searches for the easy way out which is death. Juliet also contradicts herself in this scene as despite, all of Juliets previous claims of mar riage to Paris, will cause Juliet to be condemn to an eternity in hell, she then opposes herself, with predicaments of committing suicide which would be quite humorous to an Elizabethan, as many of whom would recognize that if Juliet commits suicide she will inevitably be doom to hell. Shakespeare situates this maturation directly after Juliets wedding night, linking the idea of development from childhood to adulthood with sexual experience. Juliets sexual awakenings, in the end, thrusts her abruptly into adolescence and, inexorably, to her death. Indeed, Juliet feels psychologically able to defy her father, but in that action she learns the boundaries of her power. Strong as she might be, Juliet is still a woman in a male-dominated world. One might think that Juliet should just take her father up on his offer to disown her and go to live with Romeo in Mantua. That is not an option. Juliet, as a woman, cannot leave society; and her father has the right to make her do as he wishes. Though defeated by her father, Juliet does not revert to being a little girl. She recognizes the limits of her power and, if another way cannot be found, determines to use it: for a woman in Verona who cannot control the direction of her life, suicide, the brute ability to live or not liv e that life, can represent the only means of asserting authority over the self. It is as though Juliets sense of self and of security, only recently dependant on her attachment to her parents, the nurse and now on her union with her husband, was so shattered by her loss that her only refuge becomes the fantasy of union or merger in death. This fantasy is made explicit by Romeo himself when, believing Juliet to be dead, he exclaims, I still will stay with thee / And never from this palace of dim light / Depart again: here, here will I remain / With worms that are thy chambermaids / O! Here will I set up my everlasting rest. Shakespeares use of adolescent suicide teaches both parents and his audience about love, peace and harmony, those of which in the ending causes the Montague and Capulet to end their bloody feud. Shakespeare also displays messages to the audience of difficulties children and adolescences face, as the demands of society cause these young teenagers to be plunged head first into the world of maturity and adulthood. Juliets thrive for independence plays an essential part to the events leading to the death of both Romeo and Juliet. An example of this is when Juliet finally gets the confidence to stand up to her parents when she is told she will be marrying Paris. I will not marry yet, and when I do I swear/ It shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate. / Rather than Paris. These are news indeed. Juliets refusal to do has her parent wishes, portrays Juliet as many girls of both the Elizabethan and Modern epoch thrives to be allowed some type of authority over their own lifes decision. Juliets decision to accept the Friars potion later on in the play demonstrates Juliets commitment to defying her fathers rules, asserting her independence, and accepting her resolution to die in order to be with Romeo. Shakespeare has written hidden message within his character of Juliet. In giving Juliet the characteristics of an unconventional independent female of the Shakespearean era, he is telling his audience that women shouldnt have to abide by the gender roles of their male dominated society, as they are human, and should be allowed the freedom to show that they possess the same characteristics as men. Thus, be granted permission of sovereignty of their own life. From, Act There Scene Five I have learnt as a woman not take for granted as many women in modern society do today, the amount freedom, rights and control over lives we have now been given, from choices varying from free will of choice of marriage to no longer being discriminated. Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet have helped people of both the Shakespearean era and modern society overcome previous view in which women are inferior to men and had no greater purpose to society apart from the recreation of children, as it shows women should be treated equally men. Being from the 21st century it is likely my initial reaction to Act Three Scene Five to be different to an Elizabethan audience for many reasons that include moral, social, philosophical issues and contemporary relevance. Juliets relationship with her parents in my opinion is the main factor in the final tragic outcome. My reaction to Act Three Scene Five was of angst and resentment at the way, in which Juliets parents came about the decision that Juliet must marry Paris without being asked her thoughts. This scene is pivotal to the entire play because it explores the theme of passion and the dangers of irrational, intense emotions and actions of the two lovers to contain consequences that eventually convey them to their death. Capulets ominous behaviour in this scene is a reminder of the ignorance and hypocrisy that power and wealth brings to men. This casts Juliet in my mind, as the victim as she was granted absolutely no control over the events, which were happening, in her life. The treachery of the nurse is the most devastating for Juliet. As the audience as well as myself can empathise with her and also see the dramatic irony in the prophesies and predictions that surround the scene building the tension of the final impact when Juliet resolves to take her own life. Shakespeare has successfully injected his political views on class structures, and social problems in the world. Furthermore, causing the audience of both the Elizabethan and Modern era therefore realising how corrupt our community is.